Associations of gestational and childhood exposure to lead, cadmium, and fluoride with cognitive abilities, behavior, and social communication at 4 years of age: NICE birth cohort study

Despite non-significant associations, both lead and cadmium exposure showed consistent inverse associations with cognitive abilities at 4 years, whereas associations with behavioral problems were less conclusive, especially for cadmium. Results on fluoride indicated association with externalizing problems, including ADHD, but prevalence of behavioral problems was low, increasing uncertainty.