The composite effects of air pollution on yield

Air pollution effects on Indian kharif crop yields remain poorly understood. Integrating satellite observations, model assimilations, and agricultural statistics (2001–2017), this study evaluates the direct and interactive impacts of Ndep, O3, and PM2.5. Ndep increased yields (4.77%), while O3 (5.59%) and PM2.5 (3.37%) reduced them. Antagonistic interactions weakened combined impacts, but effects varied by crop and region, underscoring the need for tailored air quality policies to safeguard food security.