Foundation liquefaction-induced cracking analysis in embankments based on a porodynamic coupled peridynamics approach

Earthquake-induced liquefaction critically threatens the safety of embankment dams, often causing cracking, settlement, and lateral spreading. Conventional finite element methods (FEM) struggle to capture such cracking behavior. This study develops a porodynamic coupled peridynamics–FEM (PD–FEM) framework integrating the CycLiq model for liquefiable sand and a Mohr–Coulomb model with tensile bond failure for clayey embankments. An adaptive FEM–PD transition scheme ensures computational efficiency. Validation against centrifuge shaking table tests on clayey embankments over liquefiable Nevada sand shows good agreement in deformation, pore pressure, and crack evolution. A five-stage cracking mechanism is identified, and the model realistically captures stress release after cracking. Parametric analyses indicate that foundation densification effectively mitigates liquefaction, while gravel berms primarily provide confinement to restrain deformation and crest cracking.