Hidden colours of Albania: Fresco pigments study from an isolated church in Leshnicë, 18

In the 18th-19th centuries, Balkan fresco painting developed under political change, religious continuity, and cultural exchange. Despite Ottoman rule, Orthodox traditions remained strong, blending with local and folk elements to form a distinct artistic language. The frescoes served as both religious symbols and affirmations of cultural identity, anticipating modern art movements. Artists mainly relied on natural pigments such as lead white, calcite, and ochre for their durability and accessibility. Costly pigments like azurite and lapis lazuli were rare, while newer synthetic colours such as Prussian blue and chrome yellow, common elsewhere in Europe, saw limited use reflecting Byzantine influence and regional traditions. Frescoes in the Monastery of the Presentation of Christ (Ipapandia) in Leshnicë e Sipërme were analysed in-situ with portable micro-XRF across 34 points. Results suggest different painters worked at different times. Elemental profiles link pigments to their colours: Fe-rich ochres and Cu-based greens were most common, while elevated Pb, Hg, and Sb indicate the possible use of cinnabar, stibnite, or minium. High antimony in red and black tones points to intentional use of Sb-rich materials. Overall, the findings highlight complex pigment mixtures shaped by local sources and historical techniques.