The status of water security in small, rural, and remote communities in Canada: a review on water contamination and small water systems

Although Canada possesses abundant freshwater sources, uneven water distribution, rapid climate change, deterioration of source water quality, and insufficient water infrastructure put small, rural, and remote (SRR) communities at risk of water advisories and waterborne diseases 26 times higher than in cities.Approximately threequarters of SRR communities consist of Indigenous communities, indicating that they are likely to experience water insecurity more than non-Indigenous communities.This review explores key factors exacerbating water insecurity in SRR communities, including (i) types and ranges of most commonly occurring contaminants detected in source water of SRR communities, (ii) contaminant pathways and associated health risks, and (iii) performance and challenges associated with small water systems (SWSs) in Canadian SRR communities.Total coliforms and E. coli in the microbiological category, and arsenic, lead,