Ankle–foot orthoses (AFOs) are widely used in the rehabilitation of patients with neurological or musculoskeletal disorders. However, treatment outcomes may be influenced by incorrect use of the device or by inappropriate orthosis selection. Since many types of AFOs are available, differing in materials, stiffness, and geometry, an objective evaluation tool can support clinical decision-making. This work presents the design, development, and characterization of an instrumented AFO able to quantify relevant gait parameters in an objective way. The proposed device integrates three measurement modalities in a compact wearable structure. Two longitudinal strain gauges estimate ankle plantar- and dorsiflexion angles. Two force-sensitive elements detect foot–ground contact and allow identification of stance and swing phases of the gait cycle. A single inertial measurement unit (IMU) is used to measure lateral shank inclination. The strain-gauge-based angle estimation was validated against a gold-standard motion capture system, achieving a root mean square error of approximately 1.6 degrees and showing higher accuracy than the IMU for plantar/dorsiflexion measurement, while maintaining a simple electronic architecture. The force sensors were validated using a force platform and demonstrated reliable detection of loading and unloading events. Monitoring lateral inclination through the single IMU provides additional information related to balance and potential fall risk. Data are transmitted via Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) to a custom Python-based application for real-time visualization and recording. Overall, the results validate the electronic instrumentation and demonstrate reliable system performance, indicating that the proposed instrumented AFO represents a promising platform for objective gait assessment and future clinical applications.
Mahraoui et al. (2026) studied this question.