Advances in Propagation of Teak (Tectona grandis): Global Trends, Emerging Technologies and Future Prospects

Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of the world’s most valuable tropical hardwoods, yet large-scale plantation expansion is constrained by inefficient and variable propagation systems. This review synthesizes global advances in teak propagation from 1990–2026, covering seed-based methods, vegetative propagation, clonal forestry, micropropagation, somatic embryogenesis, and emerging molecular technologies. Conventional seed propagation remains dominant in low-input systems but suffers from poor and irregular germination (10–60%), prolonged dormancy (2–8 weeks), and high stand variability (CV 30–60%), resulting in relatively low productivity of only 4–10 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Vegetative propagation through stem cuttings improves rooting success to 40–85% and increases productivity by 20–40%, though clone-dependent variability persists. Clonal forestry based on mini-cuttings represents a major technological breakthrough, achieving 70–90% rooting success, reducing stand variability to 10–20%, and increasing mean annual increment (MAI) to 10–18 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, with productivity gains of 40–100% over seed-derived plantations. Micropropagation and integrated tissue culture systems offer the highest performance, producing 30–50 shoots per explant annually, achieving 70–95% acclimatization survival, and raising MAI to 14–22 m³ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, equivalent to 80–150% productivity gains. Somatic embryogenesis shows transformative future potential, with embryo induction rates of 40–70%, regeneration efficiencies of 40–80%, and theoretical multiplication exceeding 1000 plants from a single explant. Global trends reveal a decisive transition from seed-based systems toward precision clonal and biotechnology-assisted propagation, particularly in Asia and Latin America. Emerging innovations, including temporary immersion bioreactors, genomic-assisted breeding, bio-inoculants, artificial intelligence, and climate-smart propagation strategies, are redefining teak forestry. The review concludes that integrating advanced clonal and molecular propagation systems is essential for developing high-yield, genetically uniform, and climate-resilient teak plantations worldwide.