Development and validation of matrix-validated LC-MS/MS method for simultaneous quantification of 21 neonicotinoids and their metabolites in human urine.

= 0.735 vs < 0.6 for parents), with some metabolites showing higher concentrations in pregnant women than farmers despite farmers having higher overall exposure. These findings demonstrate that parent-only biomonitoring substantially underestimates internal neonicotinoid exposure and fails to capture critical exposure pathways, particularly for vulnerable populations where metabolite patterns may differ significantly from occupational exposure profiles.