The interaction between formal, semi-formal, and informal transport systems shapes urban mobility in African cities. One increasingly common manifestation of this interaction is the use of private vehicles as informal public transport, producing hybrid mobility systems that challenge conventional planning and regulatory classifications. In Maseru, Lesotho, the ‘4 + 1’ transport system, where private vehicles carry four passengers in addition to the driver, illustrates this hybridity, operating within a regulatory grey area while providing essential everyday mobility. Despite limited formal recognition, these systems are crucial for urban mobility, facilitating access to affordable transportation within city centers and offering affordable options for residents, particularly in underserved areas. Furthermore, they contribute to addressing socio-economic challenges, including unemployment and income generation. This work examines the role of the ‘4 + 1’ system within Maseru’s urban mobility landscape, arguing that it should not be understood as an anomalous or transitional phenomenon, but as an ordinary and integral component of daily urban life. The study adopts an exploratory qualitative approach, drawing on structured passenger questionnaires and analysis of relevant policy and regulatory documents. Focusing on user experiences, the findings highlight the system’s strengths in accessibility, convenience, and reliability, alongside persistent challenges related to safety, regulatory visibility, and governance fragmentation. These findings reveal a pragmatic trade-off in which users prioritise accessibility and time efficiency over formal guarantees. The research calls for a shift in urban transport planning away from the marginalisation of informal systems toward setting-sensitive integration. The study proposes an Integrated Mobility and Equity Framework (IMEF) structured into six interrelated pillars aimed at improving safety, equity, coordination, and socio-economic sustainability. The framework contributes to the lack of literature on informal transport systems and afford practical pathway for other cities facing similar mobility limitations, particularly African cities. Integrating can thus enhance inclusive, resilient, and sustainable mobility solutions that cater to the diverse needs of urban populations.
Mndzebele et al. (2026) studied this question.