Multi-indicator assessment and probabilistic human health risks of heavy metals in rice and soils system in Eastern China.

) values indicating moderate to considerable contamination and ecological risk. Source apportionment, performed using positive matrix factorization (PMF) and principal component analysis (PCA), attributed the majority of heavy metal inputs to anthropogenic activities, particularly industrial emissions and intensive agricultural practices. Health risk assessment employing Monte Carlo simulation indicated that carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for adults were generally within acceptable thresholds. However, children exhibited elevated vulnerability, with probabilities of 0.23% and 7.29% for exceeding non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk thresholds, respectively. These findings provide critical insights for developing targeted remediation strategies to mitigate heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils and safeguard food safety.