Honey volatile organic compounds as ecological indicators of floral diversity and ecosystem health across temperate and tropical agroecosystems of South Korea, Uganda, and Indonesia

Honey volatile organic compounds (VOCs) serve as ecological indicators integrating floral resource diversity across pollinator foraging landscapes. Because honey reflects nectar collection over broad spatial and temporal scales, its VOC composition provides a biochemical archive of surrounding vegetation, climate, and ecosystem structure. In this study, multifloral honeys from Korea, Uganda, and Indonesia were analyzed using GC–MS and interpreted with multivariate statistical approaches to develop and evaluate VOC-based ecological indicators across the biodiverse countries. Rather than emphasizing aroma profiling alone, this work identifies diagnostic VOC patterns that capture ecosystem type, floral diversity, and land-use context. Distinct regional and ecological indicator signatures were detected across all study areas. Ugandan honeys exhibited pronounced intra-regional differentiation, with lowland Amuru and Wakiso samples enriched in ( Z )-linalool oxide, reflecting linalool-producing flora typical of savanna and mixed agroecosystems, while highland Bushenyi honeys showed higher chemical complexity and were characterized by 2-methylheptan-3-ol, indicative of cooler, humid agroecological systems with diverse nectar sources. Indonesian honeys displayed island-specific indicator profiles, including 2-methyl-1-butanol in Java, 2-furfural in Borneo, and DL-menthol together with methyl salicylate in Sumbawa, corresponding to variation in forest structure, aromatic vegetation, and monsoon-influenced ecosystems. In contrast, Korean honeys were dominated by aldehydes and esters and exhibited reduced alcohol abundance, consistent with temperate climates, shorter flowering seasons, and comparatively limited floral diversity. Multivariate analyses revealed clear separation of honeys by ecological context, demonstrating strong climatic and ecosystem signals in VOC composition. Overall, this study establishes honey VOC profiling for ecological monitoring and biodiversity assessment across temperate and tropical landscapes. • Bushenyi honey shows high chemical complexity, indicating floral stability and landscape resilience. • Lower diversity in Wakiso and Java reflects land-use intensity and ecological pressure. • High aldehydes and esters contents in Korean honey indicate short, synchronized temperate flowering. • Alcohol-to-aldehyde ratios distinguish climatic zones. • Monoterpenoid diversity signals rich tropical flora.