Evaluation of current mouse in vivo models and advanced in vitro models for leukaemia research

Leukaemia is caused by genetic mutations within haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, leading to the production of immature blasts. While mouse models have been instrumental in studying disease mechanisms and testing therapies, their limitations contribute to 90 % failure rate of new therapies in clinical trials. This is often attributed to the choice of model utilised, and failure of mouse models to accurately replicate the complexity of the human disease. This review examines different leukaemia mouse models, including transgenic, syngeneic and xenografts, discussing their phenotype, advantages and limitations. Finally, we describe advanced technologies for in vitro modelling of haematopoiesis and leukaemia. These models provide a promising platform for tumour microenvironment research, and a robust human-relevant pipeline for drug screening, reducing our reliance on in vivo testing. The information in this review will enable researchers to make informed decisions on the most appropriate models to carry out pre-clinical testing in the future.