MicroRNAs from colostrum and mature cow milk: High-throughput sequencing and functional enrichment

. Differential expression analysis showed 159 miRNAs substantially upregulated in colostrum and 38 in mature milk. Functional enrichment and pathway analysis revealed that mature milk miRNAs were associated with energy metabolism and tissues remodeling, while colostrum miRNAs were involved in early immune signaling and developmental activities. These findings support our hypothesis that miRNA expression patterns are temporally controlled across lactation and may serve as molecular indicators of milk functionality. This knowledge could be leveraged to enhance newborn nutrition strategies and design functional dairy products enriched with stage-specific miRNAs.