CLE peptides: key regulators of plant development and stress adaption

CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION (CLE) peptides are among the most well-studied families of plant peptide hormones, playing essential roles in regulating a wide range of biological processes, including plant growth, development, and stress adaptation. In this review, we explore the structural diversity of CLE peptides across species and provide a comprehensive summary of the biological functions and signaling mechanisms of CLE peptides. We first discuss their roles in plant development, including stem cell homeostasis, meristem activity, vascular patterning, and reproductive organ formation. We then explore how CLE peptides contribute to plant responses to environmental stresses such as nutrient deficiency, drought, and heat. Additionally, we summarize recent insights into the crosstalk between CLE signaling and classical phytohormonal pathways. Finally, we outline current challenges and propose future directions. By integrating knowledge from developmental and stress biology, this review aims to promote a deeper understanding of CLE signaling in dynamic plant environments, leveraging this knowledge to enhance crop resilience and productivity in changing climates.