Advances in the impact of abiotic stress on wheat spike development

Wheat is a staple crop of critical economic and food security importance, with its yield playing a decisive role in ensuring global food supplies. However, the increasing frequency of extreme climatic events poses a substantial challenge to achieving stable and high yields. The wheat spike, as the principal yield-determining organ, has become a central focus of research, and remarkable advances have been achieved in unraveling its developmental regulatory networks with the aid of genomic and biotechnological approaches. Nevertheless, beyond intrinsic genetic potential, environmental stresses remain critical constraints on wheat spike development and subsequent productivity. However, research progress in this field lags far behind that in other areas like root, seedling, and even grain development. Here, current advances on the direct and indirect effects of abiotic stresses such as temperature, drought, and salt on spike development, and QTL's and genes involved in stress responses during spike development, are summarized. Finally, we discussed emerging perspectives that may deepen our understanding of spike–environment interactions, and guide strategies to enhance spike resilience and optimize wheat yield under stress conditions.