Harry C. Katz, Thomas A. Kochan, Jeffrey H. Keefe, Edward Lazear, George C. Eads, Industrial Relations and Productivity in the U.S. Automobile Industry, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Vol. 1987, No. 3, Special Issue On Microeconomics (1987), pp. 685-727
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Katz et al. (1987) studied this question.