Oxidative Stress Biomarkers: Molecular Mechanisms, Detection Techniques, and Clinical Applications: A Comprehensive Review

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Oxidative stress occurs due to an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and the body’s antioxidant defenses, resulting in molecular and cellular damage associated with many diseases. This review systematically examines oxidative stress biomarkers, their molecular foundations, detection techniques, and novel advances that enhance the clinical and research applications of redox biology evaluations, thereby advancing precision medicine in oxidative stress disorders. The biochemical foundation and clinical significance of critical markers are investigated, including malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxynonenal, protein carbonyls, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, and antioxidant enzymes, as well as advancements in detection methodologies such as chromatography, mass spectrometry, immunoassays, electron spin resonance, and novel biosensor technologies. Moreover, omics-based multi-marker panels and integrated analytical methods provide improved sensitivity, specificity, and mechanistic understanding, facilitating the advancement of precision medicine applications. Challenges such as biomarker specificity, stability, and standardization are examined, with future outlooks emphasizing the potential of modern technologies to enhance oxidative stress evaluation for disease diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy monitoring.