The performance and psychological effects of goal setting in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This is the authors' abstract. We don't add key points for this paper.

Goal setting is a widely used psychological strategy in sport. Whereas existing reviews have addressed the performance effects of goal setting, less is known about the concurrent psychological and psychophysiological effects. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis that synthesised the effects of goal setting on task performance and various psychological and psychophysiological outcomes in sport. Searches in three electronic databases and additional manual searches returned 17,841 articles, with 27 meeting the eligibility criteria. A meta-analysis of the performance effects and a narrative synthesis of the psychological and psychophysiological effects were undertaken. Process goals were significantly more beneficial for enhancing performance (d = 1.36) compared to performance goals (d = 0.44) and outcome goals (d = 0.09), whereas process goals also significantly increased self-efficacy (d = 1.11). No significant difference in performance was found between specific goals (d = 0.37) and non-specific goals (d = 0.72), whereas studies guided by self-regulation theory (k = 5) produced the greatest performance enhancements (d = 1.53). Future studies should include manipulation checks for control groups, carefully consider the inclusion of active control groups, determine appropriate sample sizes, and continue to explore non-specific goals. These recommendations will enable researchers to better explain and gauge goal-setting effects and help to clarify the benefits of alternate goal-setting strategies, thereby advancing knowledge in the field and ultimately helping athletes maximise goal-setting benefits.