Political ecology of the Mai hydropower project in Ilam, Nepal: the crisis of Limbu riverine moral ecologies

Growing scholarship on hydropower development has examined the conflict between state or corporate authorities and the customary livelihoods of Indigenous communities. Existing studies have shown that neoliberal hydropower projects frequently disregard Indigenous knowledge systems, land rights, and self-determination. This paper, based on a critical ethnography, explores the riverine moral ecologies of the Limbu Indigenous communities in eastern Nepal. We argue that the diversion of the Mai River poses a significant threat to the riverine moral ecologies that are deeply embedded in Limbu spirituality and customary livelihoods. From a political ecology perspective, the paper examines the state-led Mai Hydropower Project, implemented under neoliberal development policies, has created crises within the moral ecologies through riverine environmental degradation , biodiversity loss, damage to Limbu sacred sites, and the severe disruption of customary livelihoods. The project reflects a development paradigm that prioritizes economic goals while marginalizing Indigenous rights, spiritual relations with the river, and moral ecology-based sustainable practices, thereby intensifying conflicts between the state and Indigenous communities. The paper calls for a critical rethinking of hydropower development in developing countries through the integration of Indigenous moral ecology frameworks to reduce conflicts and promote socially and ecologically sustainable development.