Agency of smallholder cocoa farmers in the adoption system of fertilizer as agricultural innovation: a mixed methods study

Context Small-scale cocoa farmers in central Côte d’Ivoire face low and declining cocoa productivity linked to poor soil health and climate. Yet, fertilizer use to sustain soil fertility in cocoa farming remains limited. Objective This study examines farmers’ attitudes towards soil fertilization practices on small-scale cocoa farms, impacts of exposure to on-farm fertilizer trial (OFFT) on fertilizer adoption, and barriers along the adoption process. We further identify potential strategies to enhance farmers’ agency in adopting cocoa fertilization. Methods This study employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative pre- and post-trial surveys with qualitative semi-structured interviews to assess farmers’ attitudes, experiences, and adoption behavior. To analyze fertilizer adoption as a process, we applied a theoretical framework integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Technology Acceptance Model, and a stage-based model of agricultural innovation adoption. Results and conclusion At study onset, fertilizer adoption was limited to a third of participants. Exposure to the OFFT clarified farmers’ pre-trial adoption-intentions, but adoption increased moderately despite high-expected yield gains. The transition from intention to try-out emerged as the central bottleneck, shaped by limited knowledge access, low affordability, and restrictive subjective norms. Perceived usefulness and behavioral control, particularly regarding feasibility and risk, were key predictors of continued adoption. Addressing knowledge gaps, strengthening expertise extension, and improving financial accessibility are critical to enhance farmer’ agency and support sustained fertilizer adoption. Significance By quantitatively and qualitatively capturing farmers’ experiences with an on-farm trial, this study provides an in-depth understanding of cocoa farmers’ agency in adopting fertilization practices. Our findings highlight the impact of exposure to fertilizer trials and identify it as the primary bottleneck to adoption, enabling targeted interventions to enhance farmers’ agency. Through this participatory study-design, which identifies key barriers at different stages of agricultural innovation adoption, we provide actionable insights for policymakers. These findings support tangible strategies to promote sustainable uptake of innovation and building of resilient and sustainable cocoa production system in Côte d’Ivoire.