Urban Forests as Socio-Ecological Systems and Their Role in Ecosystem Services Provision and Climate Change Adaptation: A Review

The accelerated growth of cities has intensified interest in the ecosystem services provided by urban forests, increasingly conceptualized as socio-ecological systems (SESs). This study presents a structured narrative review combined with bibliometric analysis of research published between 2010 and 2025 to examine how urban forests are addressed in relation to ecosystem service provision and climate change adaptation. The literature search and screening process followed procedures informed by the PRISMA framework to enhance transparency in the identification and selection of relevant studies. The results reveal a marked increase in scientific production during the last decade, with approximately 70% of publications concentrated in five countries: the United States, China, Italy, Canada, and Brazil. Although research methodologies are diverse, a strong bias toward quantitative ecological models—particularly tools such as i-Tree—persists, often prioritizing carbon sequestration while overlooking social dimensions of urban forest governance. A key finding is the disconnect between objectively modeled ecosystem services and the benefits perceived by citizens, which may influence the long-term sustainability and acceptance of urban green infrastructure. In addition, emerging research highlights the importance of considering ecosystem disservices, such as allergenic pollen, infrastructure conflicts, or maintenance costs, within urban forest planning. Finally, the review identifies a significant research gap in Latin America and the Caribbean, where rapid urbanization requires context-specific socio-ecological approaches. Advancing urban forest management therefore requires transdisciplinary frameworks that integrate ecological processes, social perception, governance, and climate adaptation to support more resilient and equitable cities.