Raymond Paternoster, Linda E. Saltzman, Theodore G. Chiricos, Gordon P. Waldo, Perceived Risk and Deterrence: Methodological Artifacts in Perceptual Deterrence Research, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), Vol. 73, No. 3 (Autumn, 1982), pp. 1238-1258
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Paternoster et al. (1982) studied this question.