Pointing in 3D: validating the virtual reality judgments of relative direction task for assessing spatial memory in multilevel virtual buildings

Despite the 3D nature of our world, spatial learning in multilayer or volumetric environments remains underexplored, partly due to lack of assessment tools. We adapted the judgment of relative direction (JRD) into virtual reality (VR-JRD) to assess 3D directional knowledge. Participants explored a multilevel virtual building, followed by the VR-JRD and map-sketching tasks. Results support the construct validity of VR-JRD and its dominant relevance to large-scale cognitive mapping across horizontal and vertical planes. Both tasks revealed anisotropic memory performance and internal representations consistent with theoretical predictions. This study contributes a validated tool for examining spatial cognition in vertically extended spaces.