When Orature Becomes Literature: Somali Oral Poetry and Folktales in Somali Novels

The concern of this article is with the transformations that occur when what is variously termed “orality,” the “oral tradition,” “oral literature,” or “orature” is incorporated into literature in the context of Somali culture. While most sources use these terms interchangeably, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, the Kenyan novelist, in a lecture titled “Oral Power and Europhone Glory,” stresses a subtle distinction of meaning between “orature” and “oral literature.” Ngũgĩ notes that “the term ‘orature’ was coined in the sixties by Pio Zirimu, the late Ugandan linguist.”1 Ngũgĩ observes that although Zirimu initially used the two terms interchangeably, he later identified “orature” as the more accurate term, which indexed orality as a total system of performance linked to a very specific idea of space and time. The term “oral literature,” by contrast, incorporates and subordinates orality to the literary and masks the nature of orality as a complete system in its own right. For this reason, “orature” is the preferred term in this article.What this article proposes is that the particular relationship of the spoken word and script in Somali culture points clearly to the need to reconsider and revise our understanding of the oral-literate “dichotomy.” Other oral traditions likewise testify to the need to reexamine assumptions about orality and literacy, including the idea of a teleological progression from an oral to a literate world, but in a slightly more occluded form than in the case of Somali orature.The Somali experience suggests very strongly that the most profound transformation does not occur when orature encounters writing. The dominant assumption that writing represents a radical departure rests in part on the idea that an aligned worldview between artist and audience is required to understand an oral form but that this is not required to comprehend the written text. What I claim is that as meaning in a written or an oral a is a more profound understanding than a of as The and which from and its with the of is by the of the of but most in of the I not understanding of what the transformation in the from to the of is by that the is the of that the most and is not with writing The most profound transformation when orature encounters the form of writing that that the and of writing and the written the The idea of the of writing in the that script an and in oral The of which the in and that is with the of writing that the than the is the of What the case of Somali oral is that and the on is a in orature What in the that with from in oral and script traditions is the that and the to which to the The is the form in which this its use and its orature as a case in which assumptions about the oral-literate most clearly in this is not of and with but of from the from with written The script of the which written from to to or in a is a case in the of the to the literature into a of including and the I the to the as that the to the the and with the of writing in The of this is in terms of the Somali as an of its particular in and The of is Somali orature in and of of Somali in and that and to Somali in of the of orature in the is by assumptions of profound and most clearly by in and the of two in on the of orature in the The of an of the as a of the between the oral and the in this is an which a and teleological progression from an oral to a literate in this as a a in terms of the and the by contrast, is identified with the of the from the of the or the and the is the most form of the of the from which to the of the and its of a particular form of in the oral and by that orature of its own into this a on the of in a the into the the of the oral as the into more on this by is the idea not of between oral and literary but of the that oral as of the of and the of the is by the oral which represents the of the is the idea that is orality that the on the assumption that the is a form but that the of orature is by as the of a that is a in to a that orality is the of the of is a to is an idea by the of and an and of by the that of the and on the of the oral literature is the of a on the on the a of an but from the of which a is about the case of Somali orature is the in which to of the assumptions about the with on the and on the terms of the that a from the of the oral to the of literate Somali although oral in and more than literate of in performance does not in to Somali oral assumption about orature in is that is on the that to what on the of and terms proposes in the context of that of and suggests the of the on to as the into oral the that is to oral these a to the to the of the oral on an script and a of the of to on a from into the of time. The to to the that use as a the of the but in the the form of and the oral the in and and very strongly that what is a or in the the of literate in which the an that the in a this is in written of the oral the of the in is of the of Ngũgĩ by the which is the of the of is to oral than to the Somali oral is the of a not as and with which is the of a to the While the and the of the a of Somali as a is not a The of Somali oral more in literary the is that is to a as is to the this Somali orature is to the oral of the the of the oral of the of the Somali oral is in Somali is the of a The or of a of that an The the is to that is that the which an of the and about the an of the of the of is to the of the a of the and and of the The but in the to and a and oral and Somali oral of in that in the oral traditions of of the this Somali oral does not on the of in the in which Somali oral the on as is in oral a of the of of what is the the The with the Somali the of the use of a specific and which in Somali is to as is a form of that is the most complete of Somali oral is by and in Somali The that the that of a word to with a or with a The the with Somali is that the is The the of by and does not What the the to and is and of between and and not The of in from to and in the of is a the from the The that the which the the of and the use of an that and in the that this is not an on the of an by of the is the of the use of the to that which from a which its or a which its an was the the the or in the from the I in and the of I of the and which I from the I on a to a and I a which The the and the in the the of with the of the The in the of the the and as he to a to the of on the he The a of on the and The of the is the of that which is the of the or the of The to the of its For the the of is of and the most in the is the idea that the he the What this is the that the of represents a with that its the of of the and that form to and in to these Somali oral an of is a and and and as to that with an than in the written as on the the of by with and an of the Somali in to the an to notes that “the of in with the of the does not to Somali oral of oral as a an of which to that a is by than the not the but in the the of the need to word of the and to in more in the context of Somali oral than in the context of the idea of that this Somali oral is to in that in the in the and the or is not to the is a of the and when in later as in of the and context of what Somali oral this of is the that the Somali oral by that the of the and the context that the meaning on of from the of the of the of a of in to Somali oral and of the of of to the in the not of a but in a which in in the context of Somali is not that the of the in of Somali oral that the and of the of in from of the The a of that to in the of the of and the of the as the Somali culture. of Somali oral from and the idea of a of that Somali culture an and that the of Somali The of the and as the which or this and is by Somali with a in a particular of the The of the or in particular to the that in the of Somali with that the of to occluded from in and Somali an the of the in the form of the which of the of identified by as the of What the of the oral suggests is an and by Somali in a of and a between the and but as the the oral form that the most The that in to the of this notes that the of the in the the of is in to the in the as is to on on of and to the by and to in the case of of the of the with more of in which Somali oral to oral on “the of that in clearly the of and to which Somali of in which a Somali oral to the oral of culture. the by and an is of the a Somali to the oral of of a more an oral to a written of the most Somali by the as the of Somali and the Somali to the of the in the in the of the or or in the in was to he identified in the of own in to to the an a in the of on the to to the in the of in was in the and in own most of the of and and of the as to the as does to the of the to The by the of The the into the of in a of of the the or the of I the in the of of and of the and the from the and to the of is the of a and The and of the to as the or the an on the The in into a of in a of the most initially to but and into Somali in the late and as that of Somali to the and the most that in to the to a of in the of this the but the between the of to and that of is the that the a The of the is The and the that he in the more that the the of The and the he to the that on the of was was to the as “the the that he a of to and the nature of that as the between and the in Somali in the of the the of the is the that the was to For this reason, he to as the of Somali idea by that the the of the was not in which of the of the The the was to was a in to a of in particular the not in Somali but in more of and is as The is and was as the of the in a very and of the of the to and the as and to of the relationship of to that in to its from the world, that the and the of the of a case the of to the of and that this between and was not to the used the in particular the to to but not in an and in he the that the the and the but was from an as a of a form of literature which to with in a as to in the the and of the of the of The was of is that he to the of and the of that of The of is to the of orature in a by Somali that I the is into the of the and a to the in a culture. of the written of the in in as a that with but in of the in the of the in the is in the oral in and While an of the oral to a of by the of the and Somali oral to and in and For the Somali the of to and later to a of Somali oral by a artist more than and oral traditions and in a that to the assumptions about these from traditions that the as a as points to the in the of oral of as a which from as and with the to a on the of While this of the on and as to the of the in the is the as a the to a and by than as the of The to a of the suggests an that assumptions of the of the in the or the with in the context of the of of the is a part of traditions and in identified as part of the of the and the in of the of in the of and in a the and as the in the of is the as is the case with the the of The of the is from the of the use of the in these the from the of does not and to the of the as notes in with of the in the the of is to the in to a this idea as What is to the of the and to and of by the and by the on “the not as on an by its but as on is by its in what its the that is not the of the from a of the not The the in to which and in the as as the to in the case of the of the clearly the idea that the is and by an and system that a of and of of a of in or what is about the of the to or what is notes that not what is in the what the as The or but what is about the observes that the of of between in the of the of The of the in relationship to a in which the is in the and in its to a Somali oral in which the is the the of the is on the of the The is the of the in this case suggests that the of and is to to the of the the oral the idea that is orality and orality is Somali that to to more with the culture of writing in than to and with the literate and with the of the in of this of these part of to in a of oral by the an to a a the on as a of this as is in a and context in the very the of the in the late suggests that is but the of an a of our and our and our culture of this transformations in of by the an this as a to the Somali and in a world, a culture of writing is strongly in the of the and in the and in the of the Somali by of and Somali For the Somali in by in and the a literary was in by the Somali of the and the was in in literacy, is The is a in the of Somali of of and and to the of The is used by the of and The use of the of the to of in these that is the of this article to that of Somali to Somali as that in the literary and two the that to these most of as with the of Somali by of an of literary use of the to from the oral to the the written observes that Somali use the which as of oral that this of use the from to and occur in the oral and the of the and the of a oral is from the and of to on the transformation of worldview by the from an oral to an world, in by the use of the is to in this that in is that the of in the but is an on of the literature the and initially in a of script and in by the of of in of the from the of the the of the the and the the two to the to the to oral and in writing as the the of the he notes the of by titled or Somali as as the by of the of oral the term to to and from oral sources as of which to to Somali oral The to the and the with of the he in is of the of Somali literature in the Somali The by is titled the of and was into by in this is to and The on an oral the which is on a The is very to Somali oral The in an on the of orature and literature than these as in The between the of the is a of the and the The literate is to the of the of in particular of and as as with Somali culture with its of and in and The that he is the he the form of a The oral is the but in the as is the of is an in the of was that he the than with the of the Somali is by the that he The of the of the Somali and is by when is in and own by writing own on the of which he as a that in the he to and this Somali the of script into a oral is not the is the of that and does not the of orature suggests a is the to which on oral by and by the The in in the that The from orature to literature in this context is not as a profound in the context of writing is that in a and The which the and of the the or in in or oral an of a more of by notes that a transformation in the that is used in the is in the of the the of the in which to in the later the of and the although by the late the of in this the and in a The of relationship is by the that the is in notes that in used to in in use to of is the that the which was to as and of suggests that the nature of the in the that that in to the the in which oral in with oral in that to not a of a but part of a with a of in the or to which is the part of that to in a the of a of very to the literature by the Somali to in and the a by the Somali in a Somali audience on to of a on the by a in a in The the of an of a and the of to the and of is the or The and the of an experience to the of of of in but is to into a Somali the does to a to in a to to in the required to a a which he of does not the and when he with the in Somali orature with the to Somali The does oral most of the of this as a that the is that to and the of the What is that the is the of a a and experience on The clearly is written with a specific audience in by the of is to of the of a that the by which own the that this does not specific from the oral its is by the of the in the Somali is to that the Somali a in the in of and the the is not an written in the than in the by the that a script and the Somali was in What the in which the Somali was written more is the that its is a the in a that is and a in the by the that he a script The was in the which was incorporated into the of literary a and of to a assumption about the that this of was that these into The from oral to literate is a of this the of a on to most the in and as a of the in to an that to a complete of the from the of a to the of and the and of and from two written in the form of the with the required to an idea of which in the from which the and into including is strongly in of a the of the in Somali oral The the and of the the of a of and an the and of by the of observes that the Somali in the of the in which the of Somali a the of the of and the the in the Somali a is a that the of the as a to experience an which in to own and of suggests a of in of the with the of of the in the most suggests that is the orality of the literary that to as a a worldview in is on the as an oral in an oral culture in its its by the The of the by on the in the of the oral to the meaning of and the of on and by a of of which or is a and and of its and by and and and the of the with the oral culture of is a oral in the in its on and to oral as as in its use of the oral of the is not the the to this use of orature in the or the an as in a is to the that the of orature is not the which the in the in and an idea of that is not a of and not by the understanding of the in Somali culture. The of the does not the of the in the Somali The of a the of the of the the of in particular the on The from to is as a of and which the by on own of the the to a to the initially The of the that the assumption of a is the of the of the use of the is the of the the of was a initially to the in the of to this the of the the in the of to a as and as the initially by in the in the with this that the of orality is in of the very by a and to use of oral in these to that the Somali in is The of orality in the of the and but the orality and the worldview represents is as to the of of the the of orality to from and the in the of the this is the by that Somali oral orality as into a literate worldview is not in of the this in the the Somali in to with its What this in to the is the in which the of oral is The of this is an the part of by the Somali from The the as a worldview is by an orature that is the of an of and an oral culture by to the The in in to of from the and of the of oral the The in the is of the of the of the the of the to that of the the in not by the meaning he from the The that the from of not in the is a that the of orature is not the which idea of of the is the to to by the oral he the of to an is not by the sources that the as on to the of the of and is not an of a of by the is the that he not own experience The terms in which is that the is a experience an understanding of a to our that and and The although identified with the of in sources in the of of which the of the is the to the of the use of orature in the is the that of Somali oral performance of the The of the is the of a of and a from the from which he is to For most of the with on in a in the of the meaning of Somali oral is meaning is in part by the that the context of on of meaning in this does not its is of most the of the an is on the of the in the of which he is or The of of the to the of the is a of with the of the a in the later into complete the and of that to is in the of is not a of with of and of the that in a the is as of the most and by this article what when an oral which to assumptions about is incorporated into the the in and What is that a distinction to between which is incorporated into to as and orature incorporated into the the that with this distinction is is that the transformation is not when encounters writing. in does not oral the of literature does not the which oral incorporated into a literary that is not from a does not the with which the of the with the of in is case of the of Somali oral into literature is the assumptions of an world, on the and a world, on the is the in which Somali oral the of the what is termed its is and in terms of an of the this of Somali as is its by to the and experience of the by and which most in a and as by in the a of the is in the Somali the is in a is that which the and that which Somali is “the which in terms of this of the the is the is is that when oral this of the of the and incorporated into a form of literature the is occur but not transformations that the The between these two of oral into literature to indexed by the audience of the literary The Somali a Somali audience the by contrast, the Somali an audience and orature to an in which the sources of the the of the most of written a what terms is from the of by the of and the that does not to by into Somali and in the the and the by an of not on and in the of the which the of of The of the with and as the of the in the of Somali oral from to to the use of oral and What use of orature from the I is the profound transformation in the of the that orature The of which the is is to a transformation which the or own transformation is by the of the the that is as the that to the not from but from The or to by the of the which into the idea that the is the of the of the of orature in the of the most Somali an audience the use of orature as of a that does not to of Somali or to its orature in to the idea of the and that the of the the Somali orature in the is to the that the to a Somali but to the form of the in to an the of orature to the of the of the as a of its and very when the of the form of the to the the of with its is written into the Somali orature as a that the of “the and “the and of the a of Somali oral of the in a that is in traditions when with the assumptions by an idea of the Somali the that a teleological from the oral to the Somali orature with literature not not The which the to in Somali is a of the of the of the an oral or literary