Integrating hydroclimatic and social indicators for groundwater risk mapping in tropical and semiarid environments

) and sulfate. Conversely, the Atlantic Forest exhibited the highest resilience, with stable water quality despite urban expansion, benefiting from high adaptive capacity. The integration of the Water Quality Index (WQI) with social metrics suggests that groundwater risk is amplified by socioeconomic disparities. These findings provide a framework for adaptive water management, emphasizing the need for biome-specific strategies to ensure the sustainability of invisible water reserves in similar geological contexts worldwide.