“Trade and … ” linkages arise when nontrade issues are linked to trade. Thus, if the United States declines to trade with Myanmar until it complies with certain human rights or democracy standards, this is a “trade and … ” linkage. All “trade and … ” linkages are constructed, in the sense that the decision to link trade to other issues is always a political decision and is not otherwise determined by the nature of things. Governments link trade concessions to the satisfaction of other, nontrade policy interests, either politically or legally, whenever they find such linkage useful to the achievement of their goals.
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Joel P. Trachtman (2002) studied this question.
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