Electromigration—a tutorial introduction†

The underlying physical principles of electromigration, which is one of the principal wearout mechanisms of the metal conducting tracks in LSI and VLSI circuits, are introduced. Track lifetime is believed to be influenced by the track dimensions, composition and passivation layer. These effects are considered. Different methods for determining the lifetime of a circuit, from simple lifetime tests at elevated temperatures to production-line tests, are also reviewed.