Anthocyanin extraction from underexplored tropical fruits: linking plant matrix characteristics to emerging extraction technologies

Anthocyanin extraction from plant tissues is strongly affected by matrix complexity, including cell wall structure, vacuolar compartmentalization, and interactions with polysaccharides, proteins, sugars, organic acids, and other phenolics, all of which influence solvent accessibility, mass transfer, pigment release, and stability. In this context, underexplored tropical fruits such as juçara ( Euterpe edulis ), jaboticaba ( Plinia cauliflora ), camu-camu ( Myrciaria dubia ), bacaba ( Oenocarpus bacaba ), patauá ( Oenocarpus bataua ), and black puçá ( Mouriri pusa Gardner), as well as their by-products, represent valuable model systems for understanding anthocyanin recovery from complex plant matrices. This review examines green extraction strategies applied to these materials, focusing on the mechanisms by which ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), pulsed electric fields (PEF), high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and alternative solvents such as Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction (DES), Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES), and Supramolecular solvents SUPRAS improve extraction performance. Rather than emphasizing technological novelty alone, the review highlights how these approaches increase tissue permeability, disrupt structural barriers, and enhance anthocyanin solubilization and stabilization. UAE and MAE remain the most explored strategies, while eutectic and supramolecular solvents show particular promise for combining extraction efficiency and pigment protection. However, progress is still limited by the predominance of laboratory-scale studies, insufficient standardization of extraction metrics, and scarce validation in real product systems. A more mechanistic, matrix-informed perspective is essential for rational process design and scale-up.