When Technology Matters Most: Fitness-App-Integrated Problem-Based Learning as Compensatory Scaffolding for Physical Literacy Among Low-Grit Students

<ns3:p>Background Physical literacy, encompassing motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and behavior, is increasingly recognized as a central outcome of physical education. Problem-based learning (PBL) and digital fitness applications have been proposed as student-centered approaches to support physical literacy development. However, evidence remains limited regarding whether the effectiveness of technology-integrated PBL varies according to learners’ non-cognitive characteristics, particularly grit. Methods This study employed a 2 × 2 factorial experimental design to examine the effects of fitness-app-integrated problem-based learning and student grit level on physical literacy outcomes. Participants were 64 Grade XI vocational secondary school students in Indonesia who were assigned to either PBL with fitness application support or PBL without application support. Students were categorized into high- and low-grit groups based on a validated physical education–specific grit scale. Physical literacy was assessed using an adapted Indonesian version of the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy, Second Edition (CAPL-2). Post-intervention data were analysed using two-way analysis of variance. Results A significant interaction was found between instructional model and grit level. Students with lower grit demonstrated significantly higher physical literacy scores in the app-supported PBL condition compared with the non-app condition. In contrast, students with higher grit showed comparable physical literacy outcomes across instructional models. No significant overall main effect of instructional model was observed. Conclusions The findings indicate that fitness application integration within problem-based learning may provide compensatory support for students with lower grit, while offering limited additional benefit for students with higher grit. These results highlight the importance of aligning technology use with learner characteristics when designing instructional approaches to support physical literacy in vocational physical education.</ns3:p>