Digital competence of in‐service teachers in K‐12 education: A systematic literature review

Abstract This study synthesizes empirical studies on the digital competencies of K‐12 in‐service teachers, examining the definition of digital competence as well as the research purpose, methodologies, outcomes and limitations of a total of 33 studies. This paper aims to systematically assess published studies using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), which enables the evaluation of qualitative, quantitative and mixed‐methods research to ensure a thorough and balanced appraisal of their methodological rigour. The rationale for this review stems from the need to address inconsistencies and gaps in the existing literature regarding digital competence among K‐12 in‐service teachers. While previous studies have provided useful insights into digital competence for university and pre‐service teachers, many rely on generalized definitions that overlook the complexities of diverse educational environments. This review seeks to clarify the concept definition of digital competence by suggesting an inductive approach to digital competence, acknowledging that the required digital skills may differ significantly across contexts, such as geographical locations, available resources and subject‐specific demands. Thus, this review not only contributes to a more nuanced understanding of digital competence but also guides future research, ensuring that studies are aligned with the specific needs of K‐12 in‐service teachers in diverse educational settings. This will help avoid both oversimplification and underspecification, enabling more precise and context‐responsive applications of digital competence in K‐12 in‐service teacher education. Context and implications Rationale for this study: This systematic literature review addresses the gap in defining and applying digital competence among K‐12 in‐service teachers, emphasizing contextual variations. It synthesizes empirical studies to examine key research purposes, methods, outcomes and limitations, providing deeper insights and informing future research towards a more nuanced understanding of in‐service teachers' digital competence. Why the new findings matter: Our findings contribute to advancing understanding by critically examining how digital competence is conceptualized and operationalized for K‐12 in‐service teachers. By identifying the key competency areas, influencing factors, and methodological gaps in existing research, the review offers actionable insights to support the development of in‐service teachers' digital competence. Implications for teacher educators, policymakers, and researchers: Teacher educators should incorporate digital competence development into continuous learning programmes, incorporating formative and performance assessments to track teachers' pedagogical and technological skills. Policymakers should implement structured, longitudinal professional development programmes that systematically monitor teachers' digital competence through competency assessments at key career stages. Beyond self‐reports, policies should integrate performance‐based evaluations, classroom observations, and peer or collegial feedback. Researchers should conduct long‐term investigations that monitor teachers' digital competence in real time through mixed methods, ensuring reliable and valid instruments that address both fundamental (e.g., digital literacy, ethical use) and subskills (e.g., cybersecurity awareness) essential for effective technology integration.