Immersive virtual reality for career counseling: A theory-driven framework integrating Social Cognitive Career Theory and presence

Career decision-making during adolescence is complex and often constrained by limited exposure to real-world professional environments. Traditional career counseling approaches rely heavily on psychometric assessments and verbal descriptions, which may not adequately support informed vocational choices. This study investigates the effectiveness and underlying mechanisms of an immersive virtual reality (VR)–based career counseling system designed to enhance career decision quality among secondary school students. Grounded in Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and extended through experiential learning, embodied cognition, and presence theory, the proposed framework positions immersive VR as a decision-support environment rather than a purely motivational tool. A comparative study was conducted with students (N = 278) receiving either immersive VR-based career counseling or traditional assessment-based counseling. Results from analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for baseline scores, revealed that students in the VR condition demonstrated significantly higher career decision confidence (F(1, 274) = 18.42, p < .001, η 2 = 0.063) and greater career preference differentiation (F(1, 274) = 14.76, p < .001, η 2 = 0.051) than those in the traditional condition. Structural equation modeling indicated good overall model fit (χ 2 /df = 2.31, CFI = 0.951, TLI = 0.944, RMSEA = 0.058, SRMR = 0.046). Immersive experience quality significantly predicted career self-efficacy (β = 0.62, p < .001), which in turn predicted career decision confidence (β = 0.71, p < .001). Outcome expectations partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and preference differentiation (indirect effect = 0.19, 95% CI 0.12, 0.27). The model explained 56% of the variance in career decision confidence and 41% in career self-efficacy. Gender-based moderation analyses indicated no significant crossover effects, suggesting equitable benefits across male and female students. These findings extend SCCT into immersive digital contexts and provide empirical evidence that embodied, presence-driven career simulations can meaningfully enhance decision confidence and preference clarity. The study contributes a validated theoretical framework, a scalable system architecture, and robust empirical support for immersive VR as a mature, theory-informed enhancement to contemporary career counseling practice.