From Dynastic State to Imperial Nation: International Law, Diplomacy, and the Conceptual Decentralization of China, 1860s–1900s

the Qing government's ambassador to Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Italy, received an inquiry from the Zongli yamen, the Qing central bureau in charge of "affairs of various countries" (geguo shiwu) since the early 1860s. Yamen administrators wondered about the attitude of major European countries toward the new republican government established in Brazil in 1889. Citing official communication from the new Brazilian government regarding the change of the country's form of government and Brazil's continuous observance of international treaties and obligations, the Yamen conceded that replacing a monarchy with a republic was an established practice in the "Western" (taixi) international legal system; however, to regard the change of regime as "final" (dingju) depended upon whether or not the world's major independent countries (zizhu zhi daguo) recognized the new government. The Yamen asked Xue to report on European countries' reactions toward this regime change in Brazil, which would help Beijing decide whether or not to formally receive the new ambassador sent by the Brazilian Republic. Xue had negative opinions on the military coup that led to the establishment of a "democracy" (minzhu zhi guo, a standard translation of "republic" during this period). But Xue's major concern was that only France and the United States had formally recognized the new Brazilian government, while Britain, Russia, Germany, and Italy adopted a wait-and-see attitude. Xue recommended the same for the Qing, requesting the Yamen to suspend recognition 1. Xue Fucheng, Chushi Ying Fa Yi Bi siguo riji, 159-60. 2. For a discussion of how the Qing used the "Great Qing" and the "Central State" interchangeably in its official documents, including international treaties, see Gang Zhao, "Reinventing China."