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A theoretical model is proposed which is used to derive a quantitative relationship between the critical cooling rate and average crystal size at any location within a biological specimen of given shape subject to rapid freezing. The model is applicable to the slamming, plunging or spraying methods of cryofixation provided the ice crystal size is at least 5 times greater than the size of the critical nucleus. Complete vitrification of pure water or aqueous solutions is shown to take place at cooling rates in excess of about 3 X 10(6) K/s.
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W. B. Bald (1986) studied this question.
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