Multicultural society and everyday cultural racism: second generation of Ethiopian Jews in Israel's ‘crisis of modernization’

Abstract The core of this article sets out to examine the extent to which a multicultural society can prevent cultural racism, which, like multiculturalism, is by definition based on a culture of diversity and separation. The 'first modernity' was organized along national lines, with a centralist state that opted to create an essentialist and uncontested national identity. Immigrants, especially those who came from 'third world' countries, were expected to undergo a process of assimilation, and to integrate into the dominant culture by relinquishing their particular past and tradition. Multiculturalism, which emerged historically as a criticism of that perspective, aims at creating a kaleidoscope of associations and cultural communities, which inevitably presents a challenge to the one 'truth' of the nation-state with the argument that this 'truth' favours some groups over others. Within the multicultural model, identity politics of various groups is perceived as a means to achieve recognition, acceptance, respect and even public affirmation of differences. However, do multicultural society and identity-related differences provide a solution to cultural racism as well? Investigating the second generation of the Ethiopian Jews, who migrated to Israel during its transformation from ethno-national republicanism to a neo-liberal, multicultural society, can help answer this question. By presenting their patterns of association, character of protest activities and the newly formed hybrid identity that Ethiopian youth have developed as a means to liberate themselves from a discriminating reality, and by examining the Others' reaction to that challenge, this article uncovers certain mechanisms and methods of action through which a multicultural society, having a thin and mild version of multiculturalism, does not diminish cultural racism, particularly its everyday non-institutional version, but in fact augments it. Keywords: Cultural racismmulticulturalismimmigrationidentity politicsethnic relationsEthiopian Jews Notes 1. According to the Halacha, the Rabbinic Law, a Jew is one whose mother is a Jew. 2. This feeling was especially potent among the 'Mizrahim', the Jews who arrived in Israel from North Africa and the Arab states, and was directed against the 'Ashkenazim', whose origins lay in Central and Eastern Europe. See, for example, Hever, Shenhav and Motzafi-Haller (2002 Hever , Hannan , Shenhav , Yehouda and Motzafi-Haller , Pnina 2002 Mizrahim in Israel: A Critical Observation into Israel's Ethnicity , Tel-Aviv : Hakibbutz Hameuchad (Hebrew) [Google Scholar]). 3. The article is based on the claim that there is a new kind of racism, without questioning its validity as some researches do, for example, Miles (1993 Miles R. 1993 'The Articulation of Racism and Nationalism: Reflections on European History' , in John Solomos and John Wrench Racism and Migration in Western Europe , Oxford : Berg , pp. 35 – 52 [Google Scholar], pp. 36–41). 4. Some would even see multiculturalism as an intellectual movement which reflects the West's reduced epistemological status after being confronted with its rebellious oriental 'Other'. See Joppke (1995 Joppke , Christian 1995 Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the U.S., Germany, and Britain , EUI Working Paper SPS No. 95/1, Badia Fiesolana, Italy [Google Scholar], p. 3). 5. On reflexive or second modernization, and on the 'crisis of modernization', see Beck, Bonss and Lau (2003 Beck , Ulrich , Bonss , Wolfgang and Lau , Christoph 2003 'The Theory of Reflexive Modernization' , Theory, Culture and Society , vol. 20 , no. 2 , pp. 1 – 33 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). 6. A similar process of regionalization was contrived for Iraqi Jews forty years beforehand. See Shenhav (2003 Shenhav , Yehuda 2003 The Arab-Jews, Nationalism, Religion and Ethnicity , Tel-Aviv : Am Oved (Hebrew) [Google Scholar]). 7. It was not until the end of 2005 that the Prime Minister's Office instructed the religious councils to cease the discrimination against the Ethiopian kessim. However, it will take time to show whether the religious establishment will obey that order. 8. In conversation with teenagers from Ethiopian origin in a southern city in Israel, they all claimed that thefts are mainly concentrated on products that 'the 'Farangi [white] kids' have, such as sneakers, jeans, t-shirts, cigarettes, wristwatches, necklaces, etc. As data on that issue are not available, it was hard for me to decide whether these are indeed the typical types of thefts or, rather, the excuse to justify them. Anyway, it reminded me of Robert Merton's venerable article (1938 Merton , Robert K. 1938 'Social Structure and Anomie' , American Sociological Review , vol. 3 , pp. 672 – 82 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) on anomie in which he described one type as characterized by non-legitimate means to legitimate ends. 9. Which, of course, is a theme common to many Black Africans all over the world; see Gilroy (1993) and Clifford (1994 Clifford , James 1994 '"Diasporas"' , Cultural Anthropology , vol. 9 , no. 3 , pp. 302 – 38 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). 10. In www.belaynesh.area.co.il. 11. For more on the importance of the music for the young generation of Ethiopian Jews, see Shabtai (2001 Shabtai , Malka 2001 Between Reggae and Rap: The Integration Challenge of Ethiopian Youth in Israel , Tel-Aviv : Zerikover (Hebrew) [Google Scholar]) and Avraami and Barak (2005 Avraami , Idit and Barak , Omer 2005 'The Black Music Is the Cure for Distress' , Haaretz , 13 January [Google Scholar]). 12. See Wieviorka (1998 Wieviorka , Michel 1998 'Is Multiculturalism the Solution?' , Ethnic and Racial Studies , vol. 21 , no. 5 , pp. 881 – 910 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) who rightly sees the possibility that non-democratic and racist groups will flourish under multiculturalism. 13. Detailed reports on many instances in Kav Haofek, no. 18, September 2003. 14. Further instances can be found in Adino-Ababa (2003 Adino-Ababa , Dani 2003 'Ethiopians? Not in our School' , Yediot Achronot , 11 June [Google Scholar]) and Pomeranz-Berman (2005 Pomeranz-Berman , Ruthi 2005 'They Saw that We are Ethiopians and Were in Shock' , MBI , 7 August [Google Scholar]). 15. See also 'Violence against Children from Ethiopian Descent' (2004 'Violence Against Children From Ethiopian Descent' 2004 Kav Haofek , December [Google Scholar]) and Sarid (2005 Sarid , Yossi 2005 'Ministry of Education Should Bang on the Table' , Kav Haofek , no. 22, March [Google Scholar]). 16. Another cultural community which struggles for such possibility is the Israeli Palestinian community, living in the Jewish state and forming almost 20 per cent of the total population. See Smooha (1997 Smooha , Sammy 1997 'Ethnic Democracy: Israel as an Archetype' , Israel Studies , vol. 2 , pp. 198 – 241 [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). 17. On Fidel, see www.selfhelp.org.il.