Class identification from a temporal map perspective: empirical evidence from China (2010–2021)

Abstract Class identification (or CI) is not merely a present-oriented self-positioning but also a temporal judgment spanning the past, present and future. This study introduces the concept of the CI Temporal Map , defined as a cross-temporal cultural framework that individuals internalize when evaluating their past, present and future class positions. The map encompasses three elements broadly shared across societies: an upward trajectory of mobility, middle-class aspirations as the normative endpoint, and midlife as the critical age benchmark. Within this framework, individuals construct CI Temporal Trajectories that link past, present and future CIs. Using nationally representative data from the 2010–2021 Chinese General Social Survey, our analysis shows CI Temporal Trajectories in China exhibit an overall upward trend. Regarding socio-temporal effects, age effects follow a pronounced U-shaped curve, while period effects display moderate fluctuations, and cohort effects remain relatively weak. This study also reveals the overall transformation of CIs by Chinese residents in psychological time: from a “pyramid” shape in the past to an “onion” shape at present, and moving toward an “olive” shape in the future. This study not only explains the coexistence of collective optimism and group-specific pessimism, but also reconceptualizes CI as a temporal narrative of where one stands , where one is heading, and when one is expected to arrive .