AutoNeuro: An Open-Source fMRI Toolbox for Real-Time Neuroadaptive Task Design

Abstract Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) offers a powerful means of studying brain function adaptively, enabling experimental parameters to be updated dynamically in response to ongoing neural activity. However, current approaches remain limited by complex infrastructure requirements, bespoke implementations, and a lack of flexible frameworks for closed-loop neuroimaging, with many primarily focusing on neurofeedback experimental designs. Here we present AutoNeuro , an open-source framework for real-time fMRI acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction, and adaptive experimental control. AutoNeuro connects directly to the MRI scanner, receiving reconstructed slices as soon as they become available, and streams them into a modular analysis pipeline designed for low-latency processing. Neural features are estimated at the temporal resolution of acquisition and are passed to a Bayesian optimisation agent that selects task conditions to maximise a user-defined objective function. Experimental conditions are represented within a bounded “experiment space”, allowing heterogeneous conditions to be explored within a common coordinate system. We demonstrate AutoNeuro in a real-time fMRI experiment in which the system adaptively sampled task conditions to obtain a continuous map of brain response to the range of conditions contained within the experimental space. The system operated within the temporal constraints of real-time preprocessing and analysis, maintaining stable model estimates across iterations, converging on experimental conditions most relevant to the measured brain metric. These results establish AutoNeuro as a flexible platform for closed-loop neuroimaging, supporting hypothesis-driven optimisation as well as exploratory mapping of brain metrics across large experimental spaces.