Activity patterns of the wing muscles of the pigeon (Columba livia) during different modes of flight

The temporal sequence of activity patterns and intensities (voltage per wingbeat) of electromyograms (EMGs) from 17 muscles in the shoulder and forelimb of the pigeon ( Columba livia ) were measured during five modes of flight (level flapping, takeoff, landing, vertical ascending, and near vertical descending flight). EMG signals were referenced to wing position using high‐speed movie film. Most muscles exhibited EMG activity during phases within a wingbeat cycle not expected a priori. All muscles exhibited some level of activity within each wingbeat cycle and during all modes of flight. Intensity of EMG activity varied significantly between different modes of flight. Most shifts in temporal patterns were minor with the exception of the humerotriceps.