Temperature-dependent microbial dynamics in touchless sensor faucets during short-term stagnation

Microbial contamination in building plumbing systems poses significant risks to public health at the point of use. Stagnation and warm temperatures are well-known drivers of microbial regrowth, but the effects of common short-term stagnation in touchless sensor faucets—widely used for hygiene and comfort—remain poorly understood. Here we show that microbial water quality in touchless sensor faucets changes during short-term stagnation (0.25–10 hours) at varying temperatures (10, 30, and 40 °C). We identify two pivotal time points—2 and 4 hours—where microbial diversity decreases and Legionella pneumophila concentrations increase significantly, driven by accelerated chlorine decay and biofilm contributions. Heating to 30 °C maximizes microbial biomass (measured as ATP) but minimizes L. pneumophila proliferation, whereas 40 °C reduces biomass while promoting L. pneumophila growth. These findings reveal a temperature-dependent microbial water quality guarantee period of 2–4 hours, beyond which flushing is necessary to mitigate health risks. Optimizing faucet temperatures between 30 and 40 °C could balance microbial safety, user comfort, and energy efficiency, offering practical guidance for managing water quality in modern plumbing systems. • Residual chlorine and specie richness decline while ATP rises during 0–10 h stagnation. • Microbial water quality exhibits turning points at 2 h and 4 h of stagnation. • Biofilm contributions dominate after 4 h at 10 °C, but only 2 h at 30/40 °C. • Sharp microbial shifts occur when residual chlorine falls below 0.3 mg/L. • 30 °C heating kills L. pneumophila better than 40 °C, balancing safety and energy.