Navigating buildings in "desk-top" virtual environments: Experimental investigations using extended navigational experience.

Participants learned the layout of large-scale buildings through extended navigational experience, using desk-top (i.e., nonimmersive) virtual environments (VEs). Experiment 1 recreated a study performed in a real building (P. W. Thorndyke & B. Hayes-Roth, 1982). After overcoming initial disorientation, participants ultimately developed near-perfect routefinding abilities. Their ability to judge directions and relative distances was similar to that found with the real building. Two further experiments investigated the effect of localized landmarks. Colored patterns had no effect on participants' route-finding accuracy. However, participants were more accurate in their route finding when familiar objects were used as landmarks than when no landmarks were used. The implications of the findings for the design of VEs are discussed. Virtual environment (VE) systems are being