Trophic structure, species richness and biodiversity in Danish lakes: changes along a phosphorus gradient

Using data from 71, mainly shallow (an average mean depth of 3 m), Danish lakes with contrasting total phosphorus concentrations (summer mean 0.02–1.0 mg P L−l), we describe how species richness, biodiversity and trophic structure change along a total phosphorus (TP) gradient divided into five TP classes (class 1–5: 0.4 mg P L−1). 2. With increasing TP, a significant decline was observed in the species richness of zooplankton and submerged macrophytes, while for fish, phytoplankton and floating‐leaved macrophytes, species richness was unimodally related to TP, all peaking at 0.1–0.4 mg P L−1. The Shannon–Wiener and the Hurlbert probability of inter‐specific encounter (PIE) diversity indices showed significant unimodal relationships to TP for zooplankton, phytoplankton and fish. Mean depth also contributed positively to the relationship for rotifers, phytoplankton and fish. 3. At low nutrient concentrations, piscivorous fish (particularly perch, Perca fluviatilis ) were abundant and the biomass ratio of piscivores to plankti‐benthivorous cyprinids was high and the density of cyprinids low. Concurrently, the zooplankton was dominated by large‐bodied forms and the biomass ratio of zooplankton to phytoplankton and the calculated grazing pressure on phytoplankton were high. Phytoplankton biomass was low and submerged macrophyte abundance high. 4. With increasing TP, a major shift occurred in trophic structure. Catches of cyprinids in multiple mesh size gill nets increased 10‐fold from class 1 to class 5 and the weight ratio of piscivores to planktivores decreased from 0.6 in class 1 to 0.10–0.15 in classes 3–5. In addition, the mean body weight of dominant cyprinids (roach, Rutilus rutilus , and bream, Abramis brama ) decreased two–threefold. Simultaneously, small cladocerans gradually became more important, and among copepods, a shift occurred from calanoid to cyclopoids. Mean body weight of cladocerans decreased from 5.1 μg in class 1 to 1.5 μg in class 5, and the biomass ratio of zooplankton to phytoplankton from 0.46 in class 1 to 0.08–0.15 in classes 3–5. Conversely, phytoplankton biomass and chlorophyll a increased 15‐fold from class 1 to 5 and submerged macrophytes disappeared from most lakes. 5. The suggestion that fish have a significant structuring role in eutrophic lakes is supported by data from three lakes in which major changes in the abundance of planktivorous fish occurred following fish kill or fish manipulation. In these lakes, studied for 8 years, a reduction in planktivores resulted in a major increase in cladoceran mean size and in the biomass ratio of zooplankton to phytoplankton, while chlorophyll a declined substantially. In comparison, no significant changes were observed in 33 ‘control’ lakes studied during the same period.