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Abstract Additive manufacturing techniques (AMTs) are transforming bone tissue engineering (BTE) by aiding the creation of intricate, personalized scaffolds for repairing damaged bone caused by various factors. The gold standard of using autologous bones has the limitations of painful harvesting and limited supply, which have spurred the development of patient‐specific scaffolds with distinctive properties that mimic natural microenvironments. This comprehensive review presents recent advancements and limitations in 3D printing (3DP), 4D printing (4DP), and combined techniques with biomaterials such as polymeric, metallic, ceramic, and smart materials for improved surface engineering of nanotopographic structural properties, namely mechanical strength, stiffness, and porosity. These structures must be biologically compatible and promote osteogenesis (conductive and inductive), vascularization, and innervation to ensure proper functionality and bone regeneration. Although AMTs have demonstrated outstanding potential in the fabrication of complex 3D systems, further research is necessary to fully comprehend their capabilities since clinical implementations are still premature for accurate evaluation. In the BTE field, the increasing emphasis on scaffold materials, nanotechnology, and AMTs has opened endless possibilities for scaffold chemistry and cell interaction, resulting in an unprecedented level of development speed, flexibility, and control.
Chopra et al. (Mon,) studied this question.