Collaborations in social movements: case studies from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany during the 1989 revolutions

Abstract This study examines how different forms of collaboration emerge as strategic choices within social movements through the lens of both collaboration and social movement theories, focusing on periods of authoritarian regime loosening. Using case studies from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany during the Revolutions of 1989, and adopting a most-similar systems design, this research identifies four types of collaborations: between social movement organizations (SMOs), between SMOs and non-SMO organizations, co-optation collaborations, and collaborations based on informal interpersonal networks. The findings reveal that political opportunity structures and levels of repression strongly influences the type and formality of collaboration, with repressive regimes fostering informal, network-based collaborations, while relatively open political environments enable more formal interorganizational arrangements. The study further demonstrates how collaborations shaped mobilization strategies and outcomes, underscoring the utility of applying collaboration theory to social movements. Implications for future research include examining multi-stakeholder collaborations under divergent regime types and historical conditions, and systematically comparing collaboration dynamics across authoritarian and democratic political systems.