Intercropping for sustainable agriculture: Ecological, agronomical and socioeconomic perspectives

Intercropping, the simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops on the same land, is a vital strategy for achieving sustainable, resilient and resource-efficient agriculture. By exploiting spatial and temporal complementarities, intercropping enhances biodiversity, nutrient cycling and ecosystem services while minimising environmental impacts. The practice significantly improves land productivity, often reflected by land equivalent ratios (LER) greater than 1.2, indicating superior yield per unit area compared to monocultures frequently reported. Integrating legumes with cereals reduces synthetic nitrogen fertiliser requirements by up to 60 %, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing soil fertility. Ecologically, intercropping fosters beneficial microbial communities, enhances arbuscular mycorrhizal activity and improves soil organic carbon and nutrient-use efficiency. Agronomically, it suppresses weeds, pests and diseases through diversified canopy structure and allelopathic interactions, while enhancing water-use efficiency and drought resilience in some crop combinations. Socioeconomically, intercropping diversifies farm income, mitigates risks and strengthens smallholder livelihoods. Case studies across Asia, Africa and Europe demonstrate substantial productivity gains, improved soil health and higher carbon sequestration in cereal-legume and agroforestry-based systems. Despite these benefits, challenges such as management complexity, limited mechanisation compatibility and inadequate policy support constrain large-scale adoption. Future directions emphasise breeding for intercropping-suitable cultivars, integrating precision agriculture and digital tools and implementing supportive policy frameworks. As a nature-based solution, intercropping represents a key component cornerstone for sustainable intensification, contributing to climate change mitigation, food security and ecological resilience.