Multi-Spectral and Multi-Temporal Settlement Footprint-Derived Pixel-Level Analytical Approach to the Evolution of Building Morphology in the Haldia Urban-Industrial Region, India

Rapid urban expansion within port-led industrial corridors has heightened the need for fine-scale analytical frameworks that capture structural transformations beyond conventional land-use/land-cover approaches. Satellite-based investigations of urban building morphology at the pixel level remain limited in the Global South. This study analyzes the urban morphological evolution of the Haldia urban-industrial region in India by integrating multi-sensor datasets, including the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL), World Settlement Footprint (WSF, Evolution, and WSF-3D), and Open Building Footprint (OBF). Pixel-level statistical footprint descriptors and multi-temporal intensity indices were derived using Google Earth Engine and GIS platforms. GHSL intensity values reveal strong spatial heterogeneity (min = 0, max > 8× mean; Coefficient of Variation/CV = 212.75%), indicating pronounced industrial dominance and uneven structural distribution. OBF analysis shows high footprint variability (FVC = 167.3%) and substantial block regularity (BRR = 0.72), reflecting planned residential and industrial geometries. The Temporal OBF assessment (2016-2023) demonstrates declining spatial dispersion (CV = 187.34% to 142.61%) and reduced high-low ratio contrast (HLR = 50.96 to 34.57), suggesting increasing spatial consolidation. WSF analysis (2015-2019) indicates marginal mean intensification (Δ Mean = +1.25) and low intensity shift index (ISI = 0.016), confirming morphological stability in mature urban cores (CSR > 0.90). WSF-3D further reveals strong structural stratification with high volumetric variability (CV = 193%), mean building height of 48.20 m, mean built-up area of 1059.31 m 2 , mean building volume of 7221.8 m 3 , and average building fraction of 15.25%, benchmarked using cross-dataset consistency analysis, Local Climate Zone (LCZ), GHSL settlement morphology, WSF-3D structural metrics, and field-based observations, confirming strong structural coherence across datasets that identify Haldia as a distinctive linear-industrial morphological archetype characterized by spatial consolidation, volumetric intensification, and persistent industrial-urban coupling.