Systemic barriers to 21st-century skills development in Tanzanian universities: Insights from university leaders through an open systems lens

Although 21st-century skills are widely recognized as essential, Tanzanian universities struggle to equip graduates with them. Drawing on open systems theory, this qualitative study explored university leaders’ perceptions of barriers to skill development. Semi-structured interviews with eight leaders from two public universities were analyzed using a hybrid interpretative phenomenological and thematic approach. Participants identified four main perceived barriers: (1) side effects of unregulated Artificial Intelligence use, (2) misaligned and changing stakeholder expectations, (3) political pressures prioritizing quantity over quality, and (4) chronic budget constraints. These external pressures were seen as disrupting internal transformation processes and limiting the development of critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving. The study recommends that universities develop AI governance policies, strengthen stakeholder coordination, advocate for capacity-based enrollment policies, and pursue diversified funding. Findings underscore the need to manage environmental inputs more effectively and contribute contextual insights from sub-Saharan Africa to global higher education reform debates.