Virtual reality’s promise in fostering empathy and compassion: Mode-specific interventions for adolescents facing ethnic discrimination.

This study advances technology-based antidiscrimination interventions for adolescents by demonstrating that virtual reality (VR) modespecific designs, particularly third-person observation, can enhance empathy and compassion while preventing emotional overload.Drawing on perspective-taking research, simulation theory, theory of mind, and social learning theory, the study provides clarity on the distinct concepts of empathy and compassion and explains the mechanisms by which VR may foster both.A custom VR experience, "Connected Spaces," simulated ethnic discrimination from the perspective of outgroups (Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Niger Delta) using Meta Quest 2 VR headsets.In a longitudinal randomized control trial, 377 Nigerian adolescents (42% female, M age = 15.6) from public secondary schools in Lagos were assigned to one of six conditions: four VR modes representing diverse perspectives (embody: first-person, with agency; observe: third-person, passive; role model: observe with an avatar role model; embody + observe); a text-based, narrative perspective-taking; and a no-intervention control.Outcomes were assessed at baseline, postintervention, and 2-, 4-, and 6-month follow-ups.Results from mixedeffects models showed third-person observation (observe) produced robust immediate effects on empathy and compassion (d = 0.51-0.62),significantly outperforming first-person embodiment (embody), the role model, combined perspectives, and control conditions.These findings demonstrate that for emotionally charged discrimination content, psychological distance enhances empathy by preventing emotional overload, a finding with immediate implications for VR intervention design in resource-constrained settings.