Advances in autonomous navigation for underground mining operations driven by camera, LiDAR, and radar-based SLAM

Operators of underground mobile equipment are exposed to elevated levels of dust, noise, and temperatures, as well as moving mechanical parts and other hazardous conditions. Building autonomous navigation capabilities into mobile equipment will remove humans from these hazards and improve mining productivity. However, autonomous underground navigation is extremely challenging without signals from the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), which adds to the complexity of real-time localization. The lack of efficient communication systems severely restricts the data transfer critical for navigation. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is the most efficient technique that enables underground equipment to generate real-time maps using various sensors. It alleviates the drawbacks attributed to the lack of satellite signals. This paper summarizes the main advances in autonomous underground navigation and communication technologies. It also provides recommendations on critical research areas that will improve the safety of underground miners and the efficiency of operations.