Parent–child triangulation and children’s adjustment: a meta-analysis of children feeling caught and symptoms of distress

This meta-analysis reviews the findings from 54 studies (N = 25,582) examining the associations between children feeling caught between parents and children’s adjustment. The cumulative evidence indicates meaningful, positive associations between children feeling caught and both internalizing symptoms of distress (r = .241, k = 47, 95% CI: .209, .273) and externalizing behavior problems (r = .193, k = 22, 95% CI: .133, .251). Both of the overall observed effect estimates were heterogenous. Whereas tests of moderation revealed no significant differences in the average effect sizes based on divorce status, children’s age, race, or research design, gender moderated the average effect size for feeling caught and externalizing behavior problems, such that the average association grew in magnitude as the percentage of male children increased across the sample of primary studies. Implications for family systems theory are discussed.