The Nonrelational Higher-Order Theory of Consciousness Defended

According to higher-order (“HO”) theories, consciousness consists in HO awareness of being in mental states. While many objections to such theories have been addressed elsewhere, the most well-known seems to remain: the problem of so-called “empty” HO states, which holds that HO theory cannot explain cases wherein one is aware of mental states that do not exist. This paper offers a novel characterization of the classic HO theory, on which conscious states are appearances and so may exist only notionally. Though some critics allege this view is incoherent, we argue that the theory is workable by observing an ambiguity in expressions such as ‘appearance’. We thus aim not only to address this objection, but also to clarify how this HO theory operates.