Precise direct patterning of metal-organic frameworks: Chemical mechanisms, strategies, and applications

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are emergent materials for photonic, electronic, and sensing applications, creating an urgent demand for patterning methods that bridge their structural and chemical tunability to high-performance integrated devices. Conventional top-down and bottom-up approaches are constrained by resist contamination, limited compatibility, and insufficient resolution. Direct patterning techniques provide distinct advantages, including higher resolution, resist-free processing, broad compatibility across MOF chemistries, and the ability to preserve crystallinity and porosity. This review consolidates recent advances in direct MOF patterning, elucidates the chemical and mechanistic principles that govern each strategy, and evaluates their advantages and limitations in terms of resolution, roughness, and structural integrity. By integrating material design with process optimization, we highlight the key factors that enable high-fidelity MOF patterning and assess their emerging applications in photonics, electronics, and sensing. We also outline the major challenges that remain and identify opportunities for advancing next-generation direct patterning of MOFs.